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PFAS are bioaccumulative in nature [103]. Uptake of PFAS by the exposed organisms and their internal 399

distribution is chemical‐, species‐, and tissue‐specific. Some PFAS display a preferential affinity for proteins, 400

limiting the application of models which are solely based on lipid partitioning for predicting bioaccumulation 401

and distribution. Also, some PFAS are efficiently metabolized by organisms whereas others are not. The 402

bioaccumulation or biomagnification of some PFAS at higher trophic levels in the food webs also happens, 403

with a higher degree of biomagnification in upper trophic air‐breathing wildlife, compared with aquatic 404

organisms [104, 105]. The protein/water partitioning coefficients and membrane/water distribution 405

coefficients evaluate the potential of bioaccumulation of PFAS. 406

4.2 Effects on aquatic life 407

PFA toxicity in aquatic life is influenced by the sex and developmental stage of the aquatic species but not 408

much on the route of exposure. Among the aquatic invertebrates, the most sensitive ones to PFA toxicity are 409

the crustaceans, and the toxicity increases with an increasing chain length of fluorocarbon within the same 410

PFA class. Among PFAS, FPPPs which are used as insecticides are the most toxic with a lethal value of 411

0.0001-1.8 mg/L followed by FASAs, (n:2)FTCAs, (n:2)FTUCAs, PFASs, and PFCAs [106]. Exposure of C. 412

riparius to PFBS (8 µg/L), PFOA (9 µg/L), and PFOS (4 µg/L) affected their growth, development, and 413
reproduction across several generations [107]. Of the toxicity data available for PFOS and PFOA, 62 % is for 414

fish and PFOS has more than twice as much entry as PFOA. Most of the toxicity data are available for 415

freshwater fishes like Cyprinidae (59%), Salmonidae (18%), Adrianichthyidae (represented only by medaka 416

species; 12%), and other families (11%). Of Cyprinidae, 90 % data are of the zebrafish. Marine fish show 417

much less toxicity compared to freshwater fishes to PFAs with less than 5 % of data available [106, 108]. The 418

marine fishes that show toxicity are mullet, rockfish, cod, marine medaka, flounder, sea bream, and 419
sheepshead minnows [109]. 420

4.3 Effects on humans 421

The toxicity of PFAS in human life depends on the magnitude of exposure, route of exposure, duration of 422

exposure, and the individual being exposed; i.e. their ethnicity, age, sex, health status, and genetic 423

predisposition. The ways by which PFAS affect human health are the following – 424

a. Immune function of the body – Diagnosis of childhood infections has been associated with prenatal 425

exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) [110]. The 426