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Sustainability 2023, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 37

products and tiny particles. Regarding the incineration of PFAS, Wang et al. [100] claim that the resultant ash 371

and gas are both hazardous. Ash includes inorganic fluorine and any PFAS that are still present are bonded to 372

inorganic substances like calcium. Electrostatic precipitators can be used to collect gas borne particulates, 373

However, it is predicted that Hydrogen Fluoride, a corrosive/acidic gas, will be the major by- product of the 374

thermal conversion of PFAS during incineration. It could be difficult to capture or eliminate volatile by- 375

products containing fluoride. By-products of combustion and untreated PFAS are both discharged into the 376

environment [100]. As a result, there is a very high chance of PFAS returning to the environment and causing 377

secondary air, soil, and environmental contamination. While some of the technologies examined in this study 378

perform better in low-volume systems and are effective for short-chain PFAS, while others perform better in 379

highly concentrated streams and are better suited for long-chain PFAS. While some technologies are 380

dangerous to the environment, some are not, there are both. Additionally, the amount of energy used during 381

the course of the treatment, as well as the capital and maintenance expenditures, are crucial. It is quite 382

challenging to favour one technology over another due to these factors. The choice of which technique is best 383

will be influenced by the treatment site, available cost, efficiency objective, initial concentration of PFAS, and 384

length of the treatment. However, the electrochemical oxidation and plasma reactors appears to have made 385
significant progress in scaling up a system for treating genuine PFAS sample, according to the available 386

literature. 387

4. Effects of the exposure of polyfluoroaloxy alkanes (PFA) 388

Polyfluoroaloxy alkane substances (PFAS) are a diverse group of chemicals used in the production industry 389

and released into the environment during the process. The presence of PFAS is ubiquitous in nature as they 390

are resistant to thermal and biochemical degradation. Thus, PFAS poses an ecological risk to the environment 391
and contamination of land, water, and air. 392

4.1 Environmental effects 393

The ways by which a variety of PFAS are released into the environment are manufacturing, waste streams, 394

certain incidents like fire, and its use in industries [101]. Different PFAS lead to abiotic stress in the 395

environment. Most of the PFAS is soluble and mobile in water and thus leach out from the soil to the 396

groundwater and surface water and the insoluble ones have however limited access via this route [102]. PFAS 397

can be released into organisms residing in the environment and can accumulate in the organisms. Thus, some 398